British Local People in “Conservation”:

Natural Scientists’ Interests

from 2000 to 2002

Daichi Kohmoto

Graduate student,
Department of Geography, Hiroshima University

October 29th, 2002

~Acknowledgements ~

This study was originally conducted as the author's "individual project", an assignment for 3-month Academic English Course at Centre for English Language Education, The University of Nottingham. The author would like to acknowledge Ms Lara Morgan, my project tutor, and Ms Sally Zacharias, my general tutor in the course. They made helpful comments and assistance on this project. On the other hand, the author has intended to use this project as a basement of further study. Thanks are also to Professor Roy Haines-Young and Dr. Geogina Endfield, School of Geography, The University of Nottingham, for information and consultation.

~ Contents ~

Abstract



Introduction



1. Methods

  1.1 Choosing relevant articles

  1.2 Choosing relevant statements

  1.3 The database

  1.4 Who the local people are



2. Results and Discussions

  2.1 Trend in conservation scientists’ fields and objects

  2.2 The aspects and the time of relevant statements

  2.3 Researchers’ interests in the past and the present situation

        2.3.1 Economical aspects
      a) Traditional landscape and the management
      b) Agricultural intensification
      c) Changes in woodlands and forests

     2.3.2 Socio-cultural aspects
      a) Desirable interaction of local people with landscape
      b) The rise of environmentalism among local people

  2.4 Researchers’ interests in the future situation

      2.4.1 Researches which do not refer to future dimentions

         2.4.2 “Ideal” local people for the researchers

         2.4.3 Anticipated effects for local people caused by the conservation in the future



Conclusion




References

~ Table ~

Table 1 Overview of the articles dealt in this study

~ Abstract ~

Britain has a long history of “conservation”, which is now a world trend, and the land has been influenced by human activities. In cultural landscape, the word “conservation” assumes human use of natural elements. Therefore, researchers who focus on “conservation” need to consider it. This study analyses how natural scientists deal with local people in Britain, by using the relevant statements in acadedmic articles. In general, traditional landscape and management are preferred because of the ecological and biological benefits. Scientists often recognise local people as environmental managers who have cultural background, although this sometimes lacks contemporary economical and social points of view. However, some scientists refer to other comparatively minor points. Further research might be required to sum them up. In spite of the many limitations, this study presents many recommendations based on the results.

Introduction

In the recent two decades, the word “conservation” has become popular all over the world. Particularly, with the rise of interest in environmental issues and “sustainable development”, researchers in various fields, especially in landscape ecology and conservation biology have often used the word as their objective. Additionally, the word “conservation” has been used in many governmental policies, and innumerable non-governmental organisations have been carrying out “conservation” activities. The latter is called the “conservation movement” and this is now a powerful political lobby concerning the exploitation of natural habitats and species (Pullin, 2002) .

The popularity of “conservation” might partly be due to its comprehensive definition. But this often brings vagueness. For example, according to McMonus (2000), conservation is “In some contexts, the efficient and non-wasteful use of natural resources; in others, any form of environmental protection”. Therefore, “conservation” is often compared with “preservation” to make the definition clearer. Mayhew (1997) points out the difference in her example; conservationists recognise future use of the fish in a lake whilst preservers would ban fishing there completely. In this sense, if people use the word “conservation” in the context of cultural landscape, they should consider not only protecting the natural resources but also keeping the human activities in a changing environment. Therefore “conservation” is an important idea for considering the symbiosis of human kind with nature in cultural landscapes and the sustainability.

Britain has a long history and considerable experience in terms of conservation. The “conservation movement”, which is represented by such as The National Trust and The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, is very popular among the people, and the government has conducted many conservation policies. Moreover, most of the land of Britain consists of semi-natural environment, which has had human influence (Evans, 1997). Therefore, Britain is a suitable case to analyse the conservation issues and the background.

If the conservation itself seems successfully conducted to some extent, it must have several local conflicts. These conflicts have occured among several “actors” (Burgess et al. 2000), such as farmers, planners, environmental management organisations, governments, visitors and landowners. Although several researches have dealt with such kind of issues (eg. Wilson, 1996; Burgess et al. 2000), there are few hitherto studies focusing on the connection between “conservation” researchers and local people or landowners.

“Conservation” researchers, especially natural scientists, have to be analysed from the viewpoint of their attitude toward local people and landowners. There are several reasons concerning this. Firstly, in cultural landscape, the word “conservation” assumes future human use of the natural resources. Checking this point would bring a better understanding of the usage of this word in academia. Secondly, although conservation is a kind of regional planning, which must affect the future of people in the region, landscape ecology and conservation biology are applied areas of ecology and biology, that often prefer to deal with “pure” natural elements. Their scientific view is essential these days for governments and planners in various scenes, such as setting conservation areas, considering the management ways, or deciding compensation amount for the managers. Thirdly, cultural landscapes or semi-natural environment have been under the influence of human kind, especially local residents and landowners who have used their land for a long time. Researchers cannnot ignore this fact.

Based on the above, this study analyses how natural scientists who focus on “conservation” deal with the issue of local residents and landowners in their recent studies in Britain. The method of this study will first be presented. The broad results will then be introduced, and researcher’s interests in the past , present and future situations of local people will be examined.

1. Methods

This study was conducted by using several academic articles written by natural scientists who deal with conservation issues. The author chose words and phrases which are associated with local residents and landowners from these research, and then classified them. The precise procedure is as follows.

1.1 Choosing relevant articles

The data sources of the study are research articles which was chosen from “Science Direct”, an electronic journals collection on the Net. One of the searching conditions for choosing the articles was “Conservation AND ?“. The latter keyword was inputted from “Britain”, “British”, “United Kingdom” and “UK” respectively. These two keywords were found from the title, the abstract and the keywords of the articles. Additionally, the word “landscape” was searched from the full-text at the same time, to facilitate looking for the articles that are relevant to the issues of local residents and landowners. These searches were conducted on September 1st, 2002 under the limitation of the published year of the articles, from 2000 to 2002.

After the searches, articles for this study were chosen by further conditions. Firstly, only full-text articles were chosen from the results of the searches. Secondly, an article which had an attention mark “In Press, Uncorrected Proof” and several book reviews were excluded. Thirdly, the articles that did not deal mainly with England, Scoltland and Wales, such as all Europe and British Columbia in Canada, were excluded. Lastly, judging from the contents, 20 natural scientific articles (see Table 1) were chosen from 25 reserch.

1.2 Choosing relevant statements

The relevant statements to this paper were chosen and collected from the text of the articles and categorised in a database. These statements are the words or the phrases that deal with local residents or landowners. However, several statements that were not relevant to Britain were excluded.

1.3 The database

The database mainly consists of three kinds of categories; researcher’s fields and objectives, the aspects of relevant statements such as economical, social and cultural aspects, and the time of the statements such as present, past and future.

1.4 Who the local people are

The author assumes the local people as local residents and landowners, although the rigorous defining of them for research is sometimes difficult. In this study, however, residents of the local study areas such as “villagers" or “residents living adjacent to woodlands being managed” in the articles, farmers and foresters who have conducted agriculture and forestry using the land of the study areas, and landowners in general were included. Meanwhile, conservation organisations and the groups that do not own the land dealt in the articles were excluded as well as people who enjoy the leisure activities there.

Table 1 Overview of the articles dealt in this study

*Research focus = 1 Conserving the habitats of particular species and communities, 2 Enhancing or investigating the biodiversity, 3 Others

*Objective landscape elements = 1 Woodlands & forests, 2 Field margins, 3 Grasslands, 4 Heathlands, 5 River & ponds, 6 Whole or complex landscapes

*First author’s study field = 1 Geography, 2 Ecology, 3 Forest research (incl. Forestry), 4 Biological Sci. (incl. Zoology & Ornithology), 5 Agricultural Sci.

2. Results and Discussions

2.1 Trend in conservation scientists’ fields and objectives

20 relevant researches (see Table 1) were written by various fields of researchers. Judging from the first author’s departments or organisations, they are in ecology (45%), biological sciences (20% including zoology and ornithology), geography (15%), agricultural sciences, and forest research (including forestry). They contributed to 7 different journals although 50% of the articles were carried in “Biological Conservation” and second largest was “Journal of Environmental Management” (15%).

85% of the articles dealt with particular objective landscape elements; woodlands and forests (25%), field margins such as hedgerows (20%), grasslands (15%), river and ponds (15%), and heathland (10%). Whilst, whole or complex landscapes (15%) such as “wider countryside” or farmland (including fieldmargins, grassland and arable field) was targeted by ecologists.

With regard to the research focuses, a half of the articles intend to conserve the habitats of particular species and communities. For example, the habitat use of bumblebees (Carvell, 2002), and environmental correlates of toad abundance and population genetic diversity (Scribner et al., 2001) are analysed. 30% deal with enhancing or investigating the biodiversity, such as interactions within and between the flora (Marshall and Moonen, 2002).

2.2 The aspects and the time of relevant statements

Almost all articles, except for one, deal with local residents and landowners to some extent. First of all, rough tendency of the relationship between economical, social, cultural and the other aspects and the periods of the contents (past, present and future) are shown. Economical aspects are often argued in the statements of present (65%) and past (55%) situations while few refer to the future (10%). Cultural aspects have lower frequency; present (35%), past (45%) and future (0%). On the other hand, social aspect shows less frequency. Only 10% of articles refers as present situations, while no past and future dimensions are mentioned. The other aspects have another trend; both present and future aspects are dealt in 50% of the articles, and past aspect are shown in 13% of them.

Only one article, Thornton & Warsh (2001), do not have any statements concerning local residents and landowners. This article deals with the changes in river pollution and mentions about the redevelopment and remedeation scheme and the effect to the habitat.

2.3 Researchers’ interests in the past and the present situation

2.3.1 Economical aspects

80% of the articles deal with past or present economical aspects of local residents and landowners. Researcher’s interests in these descriptions mainly consist of two different aspects; the presence of traditional landscape and the management, and the changes caused by such as agricultural intensification.

2.3.1.a) Traditional landscape and the management

Researchers tend to think highly of traditional landscape and the traditional way of agriculture and forestry because of the ecological benefit. Moreover, dealing with them as backgrounds of the research is essential for scientists to understand the British landscape well. These are caused by the fact that almost all Britain consists of semi-natural landscape elements (Evans, 1997), which have been influenced by human activity, unlike wild virgin nature. The merits of coexistence with natural elements are now being recognised once again. In fact, many researchers focus on the presence of traditional rural mosaic landscape (Bailey et al., 2002; Marshall and Moonen, 2002), these elements such as hedgerows, ponds or grasslands and the traditional managing ways such as scarification of ground vegetation in conifer forests (Malcolm et al., 2001). Because they have had a role of maintaining biodiversity of the area as a result. For example, combination of grazing and burning have managed heathland and the heather (Read et al., 2002).

However, traditional management has not been done just for the creatures. A few researchers refer to the original purpose and the roles of farmer’s management. For instance, Morris (2000) states “Grasslands have also been managed to improve their productivity or quality by the use of irrigation (water- and flood-meadows), burning, use of fertilisers, and by changing floristic composition by ploughing, rotavation, single-pass strip seeding, and other methods,”.

2.3.1.b) Agricultural intensification

Intensifying the agricultural practices is a general trend. In fact, through modern times, intensification of production, developments in machinery, crop protection and the need for larger field sizes have progressed (Marshall and Moonen, 2002). These changes might have been essential for British farmers economically. They are, however, often criticised by conservation scientists.

Pesticide and inorganic fertiliser application are the most criticised activities of farmers. These uses damage the flora (Marshall and Moonen, 2002) and the diversity of vegetation growth (Morris, 2000). In addition, decline of some animal such as farmland birds has been caused by the uses (Vickery et al., 2002).

Herbicide use is also criticised. For example, Maudsley (2000) states that the treatments applied to hedge-bottom vegetation result in reducing the diversity and abundance of surface-dwelling invertebrates (Pollard, 1968b; Asteraki et al., 1995) and arthropods on hedge shrubs (Pollard, 1968a).

Agricultural intensification has changed another agricultural practices too. For example, changes in cropping practices such as switches from spring to autumn sown cereals and loss of mixed farming have caused the decline of farmland birds (Vickery et al., 2002). Reseeding and harrowing reduce the diversity as well as pesticide use (Morris, 2000).

Moreover, agricultural intensification changes the landscape which is largely accompanied by the ecosystem. Many researchers indicate this point. For example, agricultural intensification has caused removal and narrowing of field margins in spite of the benefit for wildlife (Vickery et al. 2002). Van den Berg et al. (2001) suggests that fragmentation of particular landscape elements such as heathlands affect the distribution of birds negatively. Read et al. (2002) cites Marrs (1988) and points out the necessity of grazing for heathland to prevent directional succession to woodland.

Furthermore, agricultural intensification sometimes is accompanied by the cessation of traditional management. For example, in grasslands, the lack of the management allows the invasion of shrubs (Morris, 2002).

2.3.1.c) Changes in woodlands and forests

Changes have not only occurred in agricultural landscapes but in woodlands and forests. There are several similarities between them concerning the researcher’s views toward the management by local people. However, the number of the statements is fewer.

Firstly, cessation of traditional management in woodlands and forests sometimes results in the deterioration of ecological situation. Bailey et al. (2002) points out that secession and the changes of some traditional practices, such as coppicing, grazing and maintenance of ride, coupled with an increase in conifers, have led to increase the shade and shade-intolerant ground species have been decreased (Robertson et al., 1995).

Secondly, clearance of forest obviously harms ecological situation. Van den Berg et al. (2001) points out that “clearance of conifer plantations (or preventing their planting) may have effects on the habitat quality of surrounding heaths” as well as pine and birch scrub.

In addition, pesticide is used by many woodland managers for large-scale clearance of introduced Rhododendron to prevent the invading (Peterken, 2001).

2.3.2 Socio-cultural aspects

50% of the articles deal with past or present socio-cultural aspects of local residents and landowners. The researcher’s views in these descriptions are divided into two; desirable interaction of local people with landscape, and the rise of environmentalism among them.

2.3.2.a) Desirable interaction of local people with landscape

The view of “desirable interaction of local people with landscape” is closely related to the traditional landscape and the management stated above. Because the “ desirable interaction” means, for scientists, ecological-friendly human activities and the constructs which have a long history with nature,. Marshal and Moonen (2002) presents a typical example; “linear semi-natural habitats often define the edges of agricultural fields, field margins may also have important cultural roles as part of our landscape heritage, e.g. ...The typical hedge landscapes of Normandy, Brittany and England ... give a sense of place to residents“. In this case, researchers find a situation of symbiosis of local people with nature. This might be a kind of “ideal” situation for researchers.

It seems, however, local people and scientists sometimes have different views towards the same landscape. Morris (2000) states “at a meeting of farmers and conservationists a chalk grassland site was unanimously regarded as undergrazed by the former and overgrazed by the latter”. In this case, ecological interest of scientists contends with farmer’s economical interest.

2.3.2.b) The rise of environmentalism among local residents and landowners

It seems that some recent farmers are interested in environmental management, and this is obviously desirable for conservation scientists. According to Read et al. (2002), “Farmers keen on encouraging gamebird populations often plant blocks or strips of game cover crops”. This might be partly because of the effect of compensation for them, although the reasons are not presented. In fact, some environmental schemes, such as the ESA (Environmental Sensitive Areas) scheme and the CSS (Countryside Stewardship Scheme) conducted by government provide payments to landowners in return for adopting an agreed package of environmentally beneficial land management rules (Peach et al., 2001).

While, organic farming is often highly thought of due to its environmental benefit. In fact, many farmers in Britain have introduced it particularly since 1996 (Spedding, 2001). However, Vickery et al. (2002) claims it since field margin management can be relatively easily incorporated into the farmed landscape on an extensive scale.

These two cases might show the fact that with the rise of environmentalism among local people, researcher’s requirement level for the local people is also rising.

2.4 Researchers’ interests in the future situation

This section deals with researcher’s view for the future scope and potential of local residents and landowners. However, the future dimentions are mentioned only in 55% of all articles. Therefore, before discussing these statements, it would be essential to mention that what kinds of articles do not refer to the future dimensions of local residents and landowners.

2.4.1 Researches which do not refer to future dimensions

There are several types in research which do not refer to future dimensions of local people and landowners. Firstly, some articles deal with only biological and ecological dimensions although they refer to past or present situations of local people. Secondly, some researchers do not regard the local residents and landowners as future managers of landscape but these roles are in some organisations and groups for conservation. Thirdly, the responsibility of authorities (not of local people) is mentioned, for example, “Local authorities may be able to prevent the redevelopment of pond sites, but they may not be able to prevent their initial drainage,” (Wood and Barker, 2000).

However, some articles ignore local people entirely. The typical case is Hawkind and Selman (2002). They asked two expert panels, comprising planners and scientists, about the adequacy of their landscape ecological plans. However, local people are not included as interviewees.

2.4.2 “Ideal” local people for the researchers

Some researchers expect local residents and landowners as environmental managers. In fact, Vickery et al. (2002) suggest in their conclusion that grass-only strips, which are a kind of field margin options, offer a substantially better foraging resource for birds compared to others because farmers often adopt and manage it. Moreover, Marsh and Harris (2000) suggest that “common woodland management practices, such as instigating long coppice cycles, maintaining low disturbance areas, leaving fallen timber and encouraging a diverse range of native tree and shrub species, are likely to improve the suitability of woodland for A. Flavicollis”, yellow-necked mouse. In this sense, it might be possible to say that some researchers impose local people roles of environmental management apart from their economic benefit.

With regard to the economy, there is an argument that coping the land with both agricultural use such as livelihood production and management for wildlife is difficult. Morris (2000) points out the inappropriateness of agricultural management in nature reserves and suggests “Where there is a conservation interest in arthropods on an agricultural site much may be achieved by the establishment of small exclosures on a short-term, rotational basis”. However, this solution might need to regulate some environmental-unfriendly agricultural activities, such as pesticide use, outside the exclosure because these areas will be adjacent. This will turn out the demand of environmental management for farmers.

However, no researchers refer to the local residents as communities. In Britain, expectation to local communities might be unrealistic because of the nearly collapse.

2.4.3 Anticipated effects for local people caused by the conservation in the future

Few anticipated economical, social and cultural effects for local residents and landowners, which will be caused by the conservation in the future, were found in the articles. However, conservation is a suitable issue for considering from the longer point of view, and lacks of this point might cause harmful results. Because it can be assumed that conservation much affect the land and the region semiparmanently. Most of the researchers are interested in ecological and biological sustainability but they do not care about economical sustainability of local people. Moreover, there are few ideas to use the knowledge and experience of local people in the conservation, although many elderly people know the local history and the condition of the land precisely and researchers often focus on their past management. Furthermore, conservation might affect the psychological aspects of local people. For example, their “sense of place” (Tuan, 1974) will be much affected by the setting conservation areas or the beginning of conservation. Their willingness to join the conservation in the future might be partly depend on this result, accompanied with anticipated economical situation.

Conclusion

Conservation is a world trend which is associated with symbiosis of human with nature and the sustainability. Britain, where almost all the land has been influenced by human activities, has experienced conservation issues for a long time. Considering the conservation issues, it is necessary to understand the researcher’s attitude toward local people for some reasons. This paper has analysed the statements of natural scientist’s research which deal with conservation in Britain, in terms of local residents and landowners.

To sum up, scientists tend to respect traditional landscape and the management, while they often criticise the changes in them caused by such as agricultural intensification. Further, researchers often expect local residents and landowners as environmental managers. As this paper shows repeatedly, the major cause of these trends must be scientist’s interests in ecological and biological aspects. Natural scientists often recognise the presence of local people as one of the most important “cultural” background of the environment, and they usually explain it using very general words. At these points, there are few reality concerning the local people actually living now, because contemporary economical and social situation and the dynamism are often ignored. In fact, rural workers who usually commute to cities are completely ignored, although the population is superior to full-time or land-owned “farmers”. However, in spite of these general trends, several researchers deal with economical purpose of farmer’s management, or further requirements toward their environmentalism. Another researchers totally do not expect local residents and land owners as environmental managers. Further research is needed to understand these comparatively minor points well.

As a tentative study, this paper has many limitations and recommendations for further research. First of all, this study is not matured methodologically. For example, distinguishing the statements associated with local residents and landowners was difficult, particullary in the case of inanimate subjects. Classifying the statements into economical, social and cultural dimentions was also hard, although broad tendency of researcher’s view toward local people in Britain was clarified as a result. Secondly, the time range dealt in this study, from 2000 to 2002, was so short. Therefore, introducing a historical point of view would enable to explain how researcher’s views have changed. Thirdly, this study dealt only with natural scientist’s views. It would be important to understand the complementariness between studies by social scientists and natural scientist’s. Lastly, comparative studies are needed to understand the trend of “conservation” research. For example, comparing and contrasting Britain with Japan, where is also an insular developed country located in Temperate Zone, might bring interesting results. Furthermore, clarifying the linking among all conservation bodies in terms of not only environmental management but also another areas such as local economy and community, their thoughts, and future scenarios might be necessary.

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